ABSTRACT

Diabetes mellitus is a strong, independent risk factor for the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) and therefore for atherothrombotic events. Compared to those without diabetes, individuals with diabetes are also at increased risk of cardioembolic stroke in the presence of atrial fibrillation (AF) and of venous thromboembolism. Activation of platelets and the coagulation cascade are the central mechanisms of thrombosis. A range of antiplatelet and anticoagulant drugs are now available. Antithrombotic therapy should be considered in all those with diabetes and established ASCVD or AF. Intensification of antithrombotic therapy is typically indicated during the acute phase of an atherothrombotic event or in those with chronic coronary syndromes who are at high ischemic risk, provided this outweighs bleeding risk. Clinical decisions regarding antithrombotic therapy should be made by assessing an individual’s ischemic and bleeding risks, in consultation with the recipient and reviewed upon any change in circumstances. For complete coverage of all related areas of Endocrinology, please visit our on-line FREE web-text, WWW.ENDOTEXT.ORG.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

INTRODUCTION

Despite a century of advances in understanding and management of diabetes mellitus (DM), it continues to increase in prevalence and, furthermore, remains an independent risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), leading to a significant burden of premature mortality and morbidity (1).

ASCVD includes a spectrum of clinical syndromes. This can include acute presentations such as acute coronary syndromes (ACS, including myocardial infarction [MI] or unstable angina [UA]), thrombotic stroke, or acute limb ischemia (ALI) (Figure 1). Similarly, ASCVD can lead to chronic conditions such as chronic coronary syndromes (CCS, for example those with stable angina or a history of MI >1 year previously) or chronic lower extremity arterial disease (LEAD) (2).

Most acute events in ASCVD are caused by thrombosis. The hemostatic response has an important physiological role in the response to trauma but, if it becomes activated inappropriately, thrombosis can be triggered (3). The clinical effects of thrombosis arise primarily from its location, such as in the coronary arteries leading to acute coronary syndrome (ACS, including myocardial infarction [MI] and unstable angina [UA]), cerebral arteries leading to thrombotic stroke, peripheral arteries leading to acute limb ischemia or deep limb veins leading to deep vein thrombosis (DVT). Alternatively, a thrombus formed at a site can embolize, leading to presentations such as acute pulmonary embolism (typically embolism of a DVT to the pulmonary arteries) or embolic stroke (typically left atrial thrombus to the cerebral arteries) (2,4). In addition to atherosclerotic diseases, individuals with DM who have atrial fibrillation are at higher risk of stroke, secondary to atrial thrombosis and subsequent cardioembolic events (5).

There are clear links between pathological processes associated with DM and those responsible for atherogenesis and thrombosis, including inflammation, platelet activation, and coagulation (6,7). Alongside control of glucose levels and optimization of other risk factors, such as dyslipidemia, hypertension, and smoking cessation, antithrombotic therapy (ATT), including antiplatelet therapy (APT) and oral anticoagulation (OAC), has become a key component of the treatment and prevention of atherothrombotic and cardioembolic events. ATT has evolved greatly in the last decades, both in terms of the range of drugs available but also our understanding of how best to deploy them (8).

Whilst ATT reduces thrombotic risk, in particular reducing the composite of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE, typically defined as cardiovascular death, stroke or MI), it also leads to an increased risk of bleeding. Balancing these risks is central to interpretation of clinical trial data and development of treatment recommendations, including in those with DM (9).

In this chapter, we will review the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms of thrombosis and the pharmacology of commonly prescribed drugs during ATT. With specific reference to individuals with DM, we will appraise evidence for ATT in a broad range of clinical settings, highlighting current treatment recommendations and particular areas in which more data are needed.

Figure 1.

The spectrum of acute cardiovascular events relating to thrombosis and hemostasis in DM.

THE THROMBOTIC RESPONSE AND ITS PHARMACOLOGY

As described in Virchow’s triad, prothrombotic changes in the blood flow, constituents and/or vessel wall can trigger thrombosis (10). Broadly, thrombosis involves the activation of platelets and the coagulation cascade (Figure 2). Understanding these processes provides insights into how pharmacological modulation may improve ischemic risk and increase bleeding risk as well as how the individual components of combination ATT interact, including in those with DM.

Platelet Activation

Platelet activation typically occurs upon endothelial injury and atherosclerotic plaque rupture or erosion, resulting in exposure of blood constituents to prothrombotic substances such as collagen. Collagen exposure leads to platelets adhering to the vessel wall via the glycoprotein (GP) Ia receptor and activation via GPVI (11,12). GPIb forms a complex with clotting factors IX, V and von Willebrand Factor (vWF), strengthening adhesion (13).

Platelet activation involves several key processes. Alterations in the cytoskeleton lead to shape change with the formation of filopodia, which increase surface area to volume ratio and may facilitate mechanical adhesion to the vessel wall, other platelets and fibrin strands (14). Platelet activation also involves the release of arachidonic acid from the cell membrane, which is then locally converted to thromboxane A₂ (TXA₂) by cyclo-oxygenase (COX) 1 and TXA₂ synthase. TXA₂, via the platelet TP-α receptor, contributes further to platelet activation (15). Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) irreversibly inhibits COX1, thereby blocking the downstream release of TXA₂ for the platelet’s lifespan (around 8-10 days in healthy individuals) as, unlike nucleated cells, platelets cannot regenerate the enzyme (8). Endothelial COX1 and 2 generate the antiplatelet and vasodilatory substance prostacyclin (PGI₂). The facts that aspirin is short-lived in the systemic circulation, that platelets are exposed to higher levels of aspirin than endothelium, due to travel through the portal circulation, and that aspirin has relative selectivity for COX1 over COX2 leads to aspirin’s net antiplatelet effect at low doses (16).

Platelets also undergo degranulation on activation; α granules contain procoagulant and proinflammatory factors, including platelet P-selectin (also known as CD62P), the surface expression of which is therefore increased. P-selectin mediates platelet-leukocyte aggregation and therefore contributes to an associated inflammatory response (17). Dense granules contain adenosine triphosphate (ATP), adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5HT, also known as serotonin). In particular, ADP stimulates platelet activation via P2Y₁ and, most significantly, P2Y₁₂ receptors (18,19).

Stimulation of the P2Y₁₂ receptor leads to central amplification of the response to a range of agonists and contributes significantly to activation of platelet surface GPIIb/IIIa receptors, the final pathway of platelet aggregation (20). Via vWF and fibrinogen bridges, GPIIb/IIIa mediates platelet-platelet interaction (21).

Figure 2.

Pathophysiology of the thrombotic response showing targets for antithrombotic drugs discussed in this chapter. 5HT, 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin); AA, arachidonic acid; ADP, adenosine diphosphate; ATP, adenosine triphosphate; Ca²⁺, calcium; COX1, cyclo-oxygenase 1; GP, glycoprotein; IXa, activated factor IX; P2X₁, platelet ATP receptor; P2Y₁/P2Y₁₂, platelet ADP receptors; PAR, protease activated receptor; PLA₂, phospholipase A₂; PSGL1, P-selectin glycoprotein ligand 1; TF, tissue factor; TPα, thromboxane receptor α; TXA₂, thromboxane A₂; TXA₂s, thromboxane A₂ synthase; Va, activated factor V; VIIa, activated factor VII; VIIIa, activated factor VIII; VASP, vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein; vWF, von Willebrand factor; Xa, activated factor X; XIa, activated factor XI; XIIa, activated factor XII; XIIIa, activated factor XII. Modified from (22).

Several oral platelet P2Y₁₂ receptor antagonists (‘P2Y₁₂ inhibitors’) are currently available (23). Clopidogrel and prasugrel are irreversibly-binding thienopyridines (8). As pro-drugs, they require hepatic metabolism to be activated. In the case of prasugrel this pathway is reliable, whereas there is interindividual variation in the metabolism of clopidogrel meaning around one-third of recipients have poor response when assessed using aggregometry (22). Ticagrelor is a reversibly-binding cyclopentyl-triazolopyrimidine that does not require metabolism to be active. Prasugrel or ticagrelor provide more potent and reliable platelet inhibition compared with clopidogrel (24).

Parenterally administered P2Y₁₂ inhibitors have also been developed. Cangrelor is a reversibly-binding ATP analogue that is potent and has rapid onset and offset (25). Selatogrel is a novel, parenterally-active, reversibly-binding P2Y₁₂ inhibitor formulated for subcutaneous administration, but has not yet completed phase III trials and is yet to be marketed (26).

SPECIAL PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN DIABETES

DM is an independent risk factor for atherothrombosis and also thrombosis after vascular interventions (38). Individuals with DM have greater average atherosclerotic plaque burden than those without (39), and onset is at an earlier age (40). There is also some evidence that atherosclerosis in people with DM is more likely to involve distal vessels than those without DM (41). The reasons for this are not completely understood and are likely multifactorial, but a number of relevant pathological processes such as hyperglycemia, chronic inflammation, and oxidative stress are prominent in DM. These contribute to both endothelial injury/dysfunction and increased platelet reactivity, resulting in a prothrombotic milieu (42-44).

Platelet activation markers are enhanced in people with DM (45). Effects of hyperglycemia on platelets include increased expression of GPIbα, GPIIb/IIIa, and P2Y₁₂, and reduced platelet membrane fluidity (46,47). Hyperglycemia-induced changes in intracellular magnesium and calcium signaling increase sensitivity of platelets to agonists such as ADP, epinephrine and thrombin (48). TXA₂ and F2-isoprostane synthesis is increased, the latter via oxidative stress, leading to increased TPα receptor stimulation (49). Reduced sensitivity to PGI₂, nitric oxide and insulin, which inhibit platelet activation, also contributes to hyper-reactivity (50,51).

Platelet turnover is accelerated in those with DM compared to those without (52). This increased activity in the creation and destruction of circulating platelets means a higher proportion of immature platelets, which are hyper-reactive, are present at any time (53). As well as increasing baseline platelet reactivity, the more frequent appearance of aspirin-naïve platelets in the circulation means more have uninhibited COX1 between doses (54).

There is also evidence that DM affects expression of platelet-associated microRNAs (miR-223, miR-26b, miR-126, miR-140), which play a role in the expression in a wide range of genes including those encoding the P2Y₁₂ receptor and P-selectin, though the significance of this remains to be fully established (55,56).

As well as platelet activation, DM may affect coagulation and fibrinolysis (57). Changes include increased levels of tissue factor, prothrombin, factor VII and fibrinogen leading to impaired anticoagulant and fibrinolytic activity (58). Increased levels of fibrinogen and its levels of glycation and oxidation lead to more compact, densely-packed fibrin networks and reduced fibrinolysis (59). Hyperglycemia inhibits the fibrinolytic activity of plasminogen through inducing qualitative changes (60). Fibrinolysis is further impaired by elevated levels of plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 and thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor as well as incorporation into clot of complement C3 and plasmin inhibitor (59,61).

DM also appears to enhance the crosstalk between platelets and clotting factors, leading to tendency to more externalization of phosphatidylserine in the outer platelet membrane, promoting clotting factor assembly and tissue factor activation (62).

Finally, individuals with DM frequently have other metabolic conditions such as obesity, dyslipidemia, and increased systemic inflammation. These may interact with diabetes to further enhance platelet reactivity and impair fibrinolysis (59).

CURRENT EVIDENCE AND TREATMENT RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ANTITHROMBOTIC THERAPY IN DIABETES

CONCLUSIONS

DM leads to a prothrombotic milieu that increases the risk of atherothrombotic and thromboembolic events compared to the non-DM population. Changes in platelets, coagulation, and inflammation appear central to this increased risk. Antithrombotic therapy (ATT) can help treat or prevent thrombotic events but increases bleeding risk. In those with a history of symptomatic ASCVD, long-term antiplatelet therapy (APT) with aspirin or clopidogrel is indicated. Intensification to long-term dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) or low-dose dual antithrombotic therapy (DATT) should be considered in those with chronic coronary syndromes (CCS) who have high ischemic risk but not high bleeding risk. Low-dose DATT can also be beneficial to people with symptomatic PAD. Therapeutic levels of oral anticoagulant (OAC) should be considered in all individuals with DM who develop AF. Accurately assessing and balancing a patient’s risk of ischemic and bleeding events is key to making rational treatment recommendations for ATT in DM (Figure 3).

Looking to the future, further work to determine more precisely an individual’s thrombotic and bleeding risk would greatly enhance our ability to make the best treatment recommendations for patients with DM. Whether this is achieved by more complex statistical modelling, novel imaging techniques, and/or better appreciation of circulating biomarkers remains to be determined. This would allow a greater move towards personalized strategies in order to more appropriately balance the benefits and risks of ATT. People with DM often have complex co-morbidities meaning choosing the best regimen is difficult, but is at the same time crucial to ensure an optimal outcome.

Emerging strategies such as early de-escalation of DAPT are encouraging new tools giving more options for subtle adjustment of ATT intensity, but require definitive proof they lead to no significant ischemic penalty and ratification by guideline committees before wider adoption can be recommended. No doubt further clarity will follow in the coming years.

The lack of an ability of ATT to meaningfully improve net clinical outcomes in those with DM without established ASCVD is a source of disappointment and demands future attention. Trials have focused on aspirin but it is clear that people with DM may have a poor response (111). As well as trials exploring novel regimens of aspirin, trials testing P2Y₁₂ inhibitor monotherapy, which may offer pharmacodynamic advantages over aspirin in this group, are warranted (134).

Finally, targeting the pathological abnormalities that cause hypofibrinolysis in diabetes, such as inhibition of PAI-1 activity, may offer an alternative management strategy to further reduce vascular occlusive disease in diabetes, while keeping the risk of bleeding to a minimum.

Figure 3.

Principles to consider when deciding on the optimal regimen of antithrombotic therapy in a person with diabetes. ACS, acute coronary syndrome; AF, atrial fibrillation; ASCVD, atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease; CAD, coronary artery disease; CI, contraindication; DAPT, dual antiplatelet therapy; DATT, dual antithrombotic therapy; DM, diabetes mellitus; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; GI, gastrointestinal; OAC, oral anticoagulation; PAD, peripheral artery disease; PCI, percutaneous coronary intervention.

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